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Ancient Indian History

  • Post author By augu
  • Post date October 31, 2022

Long story short

Early Man

Man as a nomad

History gives us knowledge of the past. It tells us what went on in the world, and in our country, long before we were born. Knowledge of the past improves our knowledge of the present. We learn of the past from tools, pottery, coins, old buildings, inscriptions and old manuscripts. Some of the buildings, tools, pots and coins have to be dug out. Some of the languages and scripts in which manuscripts and inscriptions were written are no longer used.

In the beginning, the man was a nomad. He lived in caves or on leafy branches of trees and ate roots and fruits. In course of time, he learnt to make a fire and tools and weapons of stone. He hunted animals, ate their flesh, and in winter wrapped animal skins or leaves of trees around himself to keep warm. He wandered from place to place in groups. When he learnt to make his own tools and weapons, he took the first step towards civilization.

  1. Manuscripts -> Hand-written ancient books
  2. Inscriptions -> Writing that is engraved either on a stone surface or on metal or on bricks
  3. Monuments -> Buildings belonging to the past, either dug out of the earth or found still standing
  4. Script -> The forms of writing a language
  5. Archaeological evidence -> Things that are dug out of the ground
  6. Prakrit -> language used by ordinary people

Beginnings of settled life

Primitive man was on the way to a civilized life when he discovered how to make a fire and tools from pieces of flint, and when he began to tame animals. Soon he learnt to grow grain. He also discovered metals. These discoveries were important. He stopped wandering, settled in one place and began to grow his food, make huts for shelter and make and use new tools and implements. The discovery of the wheel was a great help to early man. He could move from place to place more easily. He could also make better pottery. He made ornaments and learnt to make cloth. In the village, he felt the need for an organized life. Thus the nomads turned into a community with a fair amount of organization and division of work. They began to worship the sky and the sun and also the earth that provided food for them. Though the man had progressed, he did not yet know the art of writing.

  1. Palaeolithic age(old stone age) -> The period when man used crude stone tools and weapons and led a nomadic life
  2. Neolithic age(New stone age) -> The period when man used polished stone tools, domesticated animals, took to agriculture and led a settled life in villages
  3. Chalcolithic age -> The transitional stage when both copper or bronze and stone tools and weapons were used and the man led a settled life. “Chalco” is a greek word and means copper.

Man takes to City Life

The cities

A new stage in civilization was reached with the growth of cities. In India, with the excavation of two ancient cities, Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro, a highly developed ancient civilization of five thousand years ago was laid bare. Recently several more cities with a similar way of life as Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro have been excavated at Rupar, Lothal and Kalibangan. This civilization is known as the Indus valley civilization or the Harappa culture. It extended over a vast area including Sind, Punjab, Rajasthan, Kathiawar and Gujarat. From the excavations, we know that this was a highly developed civilization. The cities were well-planned and properly looked after. The streets were well laid-out and had an efficient drainage system. The houses were well-planned. The people of this civilization had developed contact with people of other civilizations of that time in west Asia. The great bath is the best-known building in Mohenjo-Daro.

The life of the people in the city

The articles that have been found in the various cities of the Harappa culture show that the people in those days led fairly advanced life. They were good builders, skilful craftsmen manufacturers, clever farmers and big traders. They manufactured cotton and woollen cloth. They were fond of ornaments. Their pottery was beautiful. They traded with the people of Sumer(Iran). They use precise weights and measures and perhaps marked their goods with seals. They knew how to write but their writings have not been read so far. They seemed to have worshipped the mother goddess and held the pipal tree and the bull sacred. They had many types of amusements and children has their toys. The fall of the Harappa culture was a sad event because the culture which followed was not as advanced as that of the Harappa people.

Life in the Vedic Age

The Aryan settlements

The Aryans came to India from North-eastern Iran and the region around the Caspian sea. At first, they settled in Punjab, and then some of them moved southeastwards into the region north of Delhi. Their further eastward expansion into the Ganga valley was made easier by the discovery of the use of iron. Our knowledge of the Aryans is based on literary evidence - hymns, poems, and stories which they composed. Aryan society was divided into tribes headed by chiefs or kings. Through the Samiti and the sabha, the king consulted the members of the tribe. The tribe was split into small units comprising a number of families living in villages. The Aryan family was a patriarchal family.

When the Aryans came to India, they were a nomadic people. After they took to agriculture and settled down in villages, some of them began to specialize in certain crafts. This led to the exchange of goods between one village and another. The Aryans used horses which they had brought from Iran for drawing chariots.

  1. Patriarchal family - A family in which the oldest male member is regarded as the head.

Life of the people

The Aryans fought with the people already living in India and defeated them. The Aryans called these people Dasyus. Aryan society was divided into three classes - warriors, priests and craftsmen and cultivators. The Dasyus became Shudras, another class. In course of time, the priests attained the highest position. The use of iron which the Aryans learnt was a great advance. In addition, the house was a very useful animal. Apart from agriculture, metalwork, carpentry, tanning, weaving and spinning were the main occupations in the villages. The Aryans were fond of ornaments. Chariot racing, dancing and gambling were the amusements. The Aryans ate meat and drank intoxicating drinks. The Aryans worshipped many gods. The gods had to be pleased through religious sacrifices. Some people were not satisfied with the sacrifices and their ideas are found in the Upanishads.

Rise of the Kingdom of Magadha

Rajas were prominent people who often performed sacrifices. And Rajas who organised the sacrifices were considered very powerful. And they were started recognised as being rajas of janapadas. janapada literally means where the jana settled. After some years some janapadas became more important and they were known as mahajanpadas. mahajapandas had a fortified capital city, maintain armies, collect taxes and more. for instance Magadha. And there was a different form of government known as gana or sangha. Instead of one, they had a group of rajas or rulers. for instance in Vaji, with its capital at Vaishali.

Kingdoms and Republics

By 600 B. C., the Aryans had spread all over the Ganga valley and its neighbourhood. The older tribal organization gave away to republics and kingdoms. The Shakyas and the Lichchhavis in North Bihar formed important republics. Kosala, Magadha, and Vatsa in the Ganga valley and Avanti were powerful kingdoms. They fought one another and at last Magadha emerged as the most powerful kingdom. Bimbisara and his son Ajatashatru made Magadha a big and strong kingdom. With the rise of the kingdom of Magadha, the king became a very important person and was believed to be endowed with god-like powers and virtues. An administrative system for governing the kingdom was also developed.

Life of the people

For carrying on the government, the king needed money. This he collected from the cultivators, craftsmen and merchants. The king claimed a fixed share of their produce as tax in the form of money or goods. An important development in this period was the growth of towns. These grew up around craft centres, trading centres and the capitals of kingdoms. The growth of crafts and the rise of towns resulted in a great expansion of trade. The difficulties of trade were lessened by the invention of money which made exchange easier. The caste system in this period became more established. The artisans came to be regarded as a caste. Besides the four castes, many lower castes arose and were treated badly. Law-givers laid down laws for separate castes. The ashrama system also was laid down for higher classes in this period.

Buddhism and Jainism

The Vedic religion had become a religion of many rites and sacrifices. Many people questioned these practices. Mahavira and the Buddha were two such persons. Mahavira taught Jainism and the Buddha founded Buddhism. These were simple religions and were preached in the language of the common people. These religions became popular with the common people. Later they spread to many parts of India and to many parts of the world. Followers of Jainism and Buddhism left their homes and used to stay at Sanghas or Viharas(monasteries).

Buddhism

Siddhartha, also known as Gautama belonged to a small gana known as the Sakya gana and was a Kshatriya. He was born in the Lumbini grove near the city of Kapilavastu. He left home in search of knowledge. Through prolonged meditation, he attained enlightenment under a peepal tree at Bodh Gaya in Bihar. He then went to Sarnath, Varanasi where he taught for the first time. He passed away at Kusinara. The Buddha taught that the world was full of suffering because of the desire for worldly things. He preached the Eightfold path. Buddhism also preached ahimsa and forbade the killing of animals. Buddhism opposed Vedic rituals and sacrifices. It was also opposed to the caste system and ill-treatment of the Shudras and other lowly castes. Buddhism inspired much of the early art of India. Buddhist monasteries became important centres of education. The rules made for Buddha sangha were written in a book called “Vinaya Pitaka”.

A Buddhist text says “just as the water of rivers lose their names and separateness when they flow into the mighty ocean, so as varna and ranks and family forgotten when the followers of the Buddha join the order of monks”

Jainism

Vardhamana Mahavira was born in the city of Vaishali. He was the last and 24th Tirthankara of the Jainas. He was a Kshatriya prince of the Lichchhavis, a group that was part of the Vaji sangha. Jainism enjoined upon its followers to base their actions on the Three Jewels - Right Faith, Right Knowledge and Right Action. It also forbade the taking of life. The word Jaina comes from the word Jina means conqueror. Jainism was supported mainly by traders. Framers find it difficult because they had to kill insects to protect their crops. Originally the teaching was transmitted orally finally it was written down in the form which they are presently available at a place called Valabhi, in Gujarat.

Upanishads

The Upanishads are a collection of ancient Indian philosophical texts that form part of the Vedic scriptures. They are considered to be some of the earliest expressions of Hindu thought and contain important philosophical and spiritual teachings. The Upanishads are primarily concerned with the nature of reality, the self, the ultimate goal of human life (often described as liberation or enlightenment), and the path to attain it. They contain a variety of philosophical views, including Samkhya, Yoga, and Vedanta, and have influenced many schools of Hindu thought, as well as Buddhism and Jainism. The Upanishads are considered to be one of the most important sources for the understanding of Hindu philosophy and spirituality and continue to be studied and revered by scholars and spiritual seekers alike. Upanishads literally means “approaching and sitting near”. The ideas were presented through simple dialogues. Most thinkers were men, brahmins and rajas. there are a few exceptions. Gargi, a woman, was famous for her learning and participated in debates held in royal courts. Satyakama Jabala, a poor man who is named after his mother Jabali(who was a slave), had a deep desire to learn about reality and later he became one of the best-known thinkers of the time.

The Mauryan Empire

The Maurya Kings

In the fourth century B. C., Nanda kings ruled Magadha. They were not popular. Chandragupta Maurya overthrew their rule and established the Mauryan rule. Chanakya also known as Kautilya trained Chandragupta. Many of Chanakya’s ideas were written down in a book called the Arthashashtra. Greek king Alexander conquered Punjab and after the death of Alexander, Punjab was ruled by Greek governors. But Chandragupta conquered Punjab. During Chandragupta’s reign, the whole of northern India was united under the Mauryan empire. Megasthenes was an ambassador who was sent to the court of Chandragupta by the Greek ruler of west Asia named Seleucus Nicator. After ruling for about 25 years Chandragupta left his throne to his son Bindusara and became a Jaina ascetic. Bindusara extended the kingdom further and conquered the Deccan Plateau as far as Mysore. Bindusara’s son Ashoka fought a war against Kalinga and was victorious. Now almost the whole of India was united under Mauryan rule.

After the Kalinga war, Ashoka decided not to fight any more wars. He was a Buddhist and wanted to make Buddhism popular. But he was more concerned with dhamma which leads men to be good. Through his edicts, which were engraved on rocks and pillars in the language of the common people, he persuaded the people to live in peace and tolerance. He preached unity and amity among the people and among the various religions. He forbade the killing of animals for religious sacrifices. The edicts of Ashoka were inscribed in the Brahmi script but the language used was Prakrit. Ashoka was inspired by the teaching of the Buddha.

Administration, Society and Culture

Kautilya’s Arthashastra and the account of Megasthenes are the two literary sources for Chandragupta’s reign. The edicts of Ashoka provide information on Ashoka’s ideas about dharma, government, social behaviour and other matters. The Mauryan empire was probably divided into districts. Groups of villages formed smaller administrative units. Various officers looked after the administration in the districts. The work was divided into many departments under a head at Pataliputra. Ashoka started a special group of officers- dharma-mahamatras. He maintained friendly relations with a number of neighbouring countries. From Megasthenes, we learnt a great deal about the capital city of Pataliputra and about society. Megasthenes was the ambassador of Seleucus Nicator, a greek governor. The Ashokan pillars on which edicts were inscribed are beautiful specimens of Mauryan art. The pillar at Sarnath had four lions carved on top, this was taken as the national emblem when India got independence in 1947. The inability of the rulers after Ashoka and the vastness of the empire made the Mauryan empire break down and was conquered by other kings. Mahindra, son of Ashoka persuaded the people of Ceylon to become Buddhists.

India after the Mauryas

The Deccan and South India

With the decline of the Mauryan empire, the Satavahanas emerged as an independent power in the Deccan. King Satakarni conquered many regions. The Satavahans had to fight against the shakas who were ruling in Saurashtra. Gautamiputra Satakarni succeeded in regaining the western Deccan which had been lost to the Shakas. In the second century A. D., the Satavahanas succeeded in extending their kingdom to the North and the South but in the third century, the kingdom declined. The Satavahans kingdom acted as a bridge between North and South India. Many towns grew up and trade, inland and foreign, flourished. An efficient administrative system was developed.

In this period, under the patronage of rich merchants, Buddhist stupas and chaityas were decorated. Many monasteries were built near the big cities. Some monasteries were big caves cut into the hills and decorated with sculptures. The religious art of this period was mainly Buddhist.

Buddhism became very popular. Its spread was helped by the great Buddhist philosophers, Ashvaghosha and Nagarjuna. In place of the old Vedic gods, Vishnu and Shiva were becoming popular and devotion to God become more important than religious ceremonies alone.

In south India, three kingdoms arose - the Cholas in the region of Tanjore, the Pandyas in the region of Madurai and the Cheras in Kerala. They often fought each other. The Cholas became powerful in the first century B.C. They developed into a sea power and occupied Ceylon for some time. The Malabar coast became a great centre of trade with the Roman empire and Indian luxury goods were exported. Excavations at Arikamedu, which was an important port, have brought to light many Roman objects. Trade was carried on with south-east Asia also. Trade made these kingdoms very rich.

The information about the life of this period is provided by the Sangam literature. It is a collection of two thousand poems in Tamil. These poems resemble Vedic hymns though they are not all religious poems.

Most people lived in villages. Merchants and craftsmen lived in towns and in ports. The king was assisted by an assembly of chiefs - the sabha- where all matters were discussed. People amused themselves with gambling, music, dancing and poetry recitations.

Some people followed the religions which had spread from the north. Most of them, however, worshipped their traditional gods and heroes. A new religion from western Asia came to India in the first century A. D. This was Christianity.

North India

Between 100 B. C. and 100 A. D., a number of foreigners, namely the Greeks, the Parthians, the Shakas, and the Kushanas came to India. The Indo-Greeks, as the descendants of the Greek rulers of Iran and Afghanistan, are called, ruled over Gandhara. Their culture was a mix of Indian and Greek. The Kushanas, coming from Chinese Turkistan, displaced the Indo-Greeks and established a powerful empire in northern and Northern-west India. Their most famous king, Kanishka, is known for his patronage of Buddhism. Indian Culture was enriched as a result of contact with Foreigners. India came into closer contact with Iran and western Asia and trade increased. As a result of Greek and Roman influence, an important style of art, known as Gandhara Art, came into existence. Another style of art developed at Mathura. The art of both schools was Buddhist. These contacts also helped in the progress of the sciences of astronomy and medicine. In this period two sects, Mahayana and Hinayana, appeared in Buddhism. Buddhism has changed a great deal. Buddhism spread to China and Central Asia in this period. Mahayana was a sect with many rites and ceremonies and worship of saints. Jataka tales are stories about the lives of Bodhisattvas, who are holy persons who lived on earth before Buddha and were respected by the Buddhists.

Gandhara School of Art

Gandhara school of art was one of the major schools of art in the history of ancient India. Although an intricate part of Indian history, it is uniquely associated with the Greco-Roman style of art.

The combination of these Greco-Roman and Indian ideas along with the influence of other foreign traditions such as from China and Iran resulted in the formation of a distinct style known as the Gandhara School of art.

This style of art was closely associated with Mahayana Buddhism and hence the main theme of this art was Lord Buddha and Bodhisattvas. Thus, it can be conjectured that in idea and conception, this style was Indian and in execution it was foreign. One example of the Gandhara style of art is the Bamiyan Buddha statues.

It mostly flourished in the areas of Afghanistan and present North-Western India. The prominent locations were Taxila, Peshawar, Begram, and Bamiyan. The period around which the Gandhara school of art flourished could be said to be from the 1st century BCE to the 4th century CE.

There was extensive use of black stone and stucco. Stucco was a kind of plaster that was used for many structures including the freestanding ones under this style of art. The free-standing structures included many chaityas, Viharas, and stupas.

The striking feature of the Gandhara School of art shows a very realistic and natural depiction of features in perfection. Although it was dominated by the themes of Lord Buddha, however, there were images on other subjects also such as the images of the Greek God Apollo and certain kings as well.

The Greco-Roman effect(Hellenistic effect) on Gandhara art can be traced through:

  • Halo around the head of Lord Buddha
  • Buddha’s wavy hair
  • The forehead lines
  • Stoic face (expressionless face)
  • Drape and style of the garments
  • Ornaments
  • Elongated ear

Thus, the Gandhara School of Art can be said to be an influence and culmination of both Indian as well as foreign traditions due to its strategic location.

The age of the Guptas

the last of the ganas or sanghas were conquered by the Guptas.

The Gupta kings

In the 4th century A. D. a powerful dynasty - the Gupta dynasty - arose in Magadha. There were great achievements in the cultural fields during this period. Hence this period is described as a “Golden Age”. The dynasty became important under Chandragupta 1 who married a Lichchhavi princess. Under his son, Samugrdagupta, the kingdom became very powerful and extended as far as the modern regions of western Uttar Pradesh and Delhi. He also campaigned in the east, the Deccan and the south and defeated many kings. However, all the territories he conquered were not added to his empire. Because of this, the Gupta empire was not as large as that of the Mauryas. Chandragupta 2 or Vikramaditya fought against the Shakas in western India. He maintained friendly relations with the kings of the Deccan and the South. He is famous for his patronage of literature and arts. The empire declined in the 5th century under weak rulers. The Hunas, a central Asian people, attacked India and established their kingdom. These people became a part of the Indian population. Gupta’s administration differed from that of the Mauryas in many ways. The governors of provinces were more independent. The officers were later paid their salaries in land revenue and not in cash. Under the weak rulers the governors behaved like independent kings and later, after the fall of the Guptas, became independent rulers. In the administration of the districts, the governors were assisted by district councils.

Life of the people

From the account of Fa Hien, a Chinese traveller who came to India to study Buddhist scriptures, we learn a great deal about Indian Society during the Gupta period. We learn of India’s prosperity, relations between Buddhists and brahmins and other aspects of social life from this account. Fa Hien also tells us about the existence of untouchables, who were badly treated.

This period saw a growth in trade with western Asia and Southeast Asia. Some of the important ports from which trade was carried on with south-east Asia were Tamralipti, Broach, Sopara and Kalyan. Many aspects of Indian culture also spread to south-east Asian countries. Relations with Central Asia and China also developed through missionaries and traders.

The Gupta kings were worshippers of Vishnu. Religious sacrifices were also held. The status of the brahmans in society rose higher. The epics and Puranas were rewritten during this period and these books assumed their present form.

Unlike the rock-cut temples at Ajanta and Ellora, new types of temples were built in brick and stone and dedicated to the worship of Vishnu and Shiva. The earliest Gupta temples consisted of just one room where the image was kept. In later centuries they became larger. Many Buddhist monasteries were also built, some of them cut into hillsides. The walls of caves were covered with murals as at Ajanta.

Under Gupta’s patronage, some of the finest poetry and drama were written. Kalidasa is believed to have lived at the court of Chandragupta II. Sanskrit was widely used by the educated. Sciences such as astronomy and mathematics also flourished. The Indian system of numerals was the most developed in the world. Knowledge of metals improved. This all-around progress allows us to call the Gupta Age an age of advanced civilization.

The age of smaller kingdoms

The North

About a hundred years after the breaking up of the Gupta empire, a new kingdom arose in North India under the powerful king Harsha. He made Kanauj his capital. He conquered almost the whole of northern India but was defeated by the Chalukya ruler, Pulakeshin, when he tried to campaign in the Deccan. Like the Gupta kings, Harsha did not add all the territories conquered by him to his kingdom. He received tribute from them, and soldiers in times of war. He was a Buddhist but gave his patronage to other religions also. He wrote three plays in Sanskrit. Hiuen Tsang, a Chinese traveller, came to India in this period and met Harsha. We learn from him that Buddhism was still popular in eastern India. Nalanda was the leading university in the country. He also wrote about the caste system. The untouchables were treated badly and had to live on the outskirts of the town. The rich lived in beautifully decorated houses and the poor in simple ones. People were honest but hot-tempered. After Harsha’s death the kingdom was split into many small statest.

The Deccan and the South

After the Vakatakas, the Chalukyas emerged as a strong power in the deccan. They made Vatapi their capital. The famous Chalukya ruler, Pulakeshin, had defeated Harsha when the latter attacked Deccan. The Chalukyas had to fight against the Pallavas in the south and the Rashtrakutas in the North. The Chalukyas and the Rashtrakutas were great patrons of the arts. Much of the Ellora sculpture was due to their patronage.

The Pallavas were a strong power in the south and ruled from the region of Kanchipuram. They had to fight with the Pandyas and the Chalukyas. The Pallava king Mahendravarman was a contemporary of Harsha and Pulakeshin. He was a poet and a musician. In this period, a group of Tamil saints popularized a religion of personal devotion to God. Their hymns were written in the language of the common people, Tamil. Many of the saints came from the lower castes. Under the Pallavas, many temples were built. On the roof of the room where the image was placed a tall tower was built. The temple became a gathering place where villagers met and discussed their problems. It was also the cultural centre of the village.

India and the World

Indian contacts with the outside world

By the 7th century A.D., India’s relations with south-east Asia had grown considerably. Trade had increased. Some merchants settled down in these countries. Gradually some aspects of Indian culture were accepted by the people of south-east Asia. However, the culture were accepted by the people of south-east Asia. Howerever, the culture of south-east Asian countries was not an imitation of Indian culture. In the villages, the old way of life continued. The aspects of Indian culture which were accepted were combined with their own old culture. Grand temples were built in many of these countries. A new type of literature developed, which combined Indian influences with local traditions. The art and architecture in these countries was influenced by both Hindu and Buddhist religions. Though there were many similarities, the culture of these countries had their special features. These countries also contributed to Indian culture.

The arabs in India

Islam arose in Arabia and soon spread to many parts of Asia and Africa. It was propagated by the Prophet Muhammad who saw it as a means of unifying the tribes of Arabia. He also believed that he was revealing the truth of God to man. He objected to people worshipping idols and stones and taught the worship of one supreme God. He gave a set of rules to his followers which emphasized prayer, personal cleanliness, keeping fasts and being generous in charity. He also insisted that everyone was equal in the eyes of God and that there were no distinctions of class and caste. Muhammed died in 632 A.D.